A solution is a homogenous mixture that contains two components a solvent and a solute. A solvent is a substance which is present in a larger amount in solution and a solute is a substance which is present in a smaller amount. There are various common examples of solutions that we see in our daily life such as saltwater which is formed when we mix salt in water, Vinegar is obtained when we mix acetic acid in water.
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Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more components. The Type of Solution is decided by the physical states of solute and solvent and solutions are categorized as solid, liquid, or gaseous. For example, a sugar solution is a liquid solution, while air is a gaseous solution.
The concentration of a solution indicates the amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution. Common expressions include molarity (moles of solute per litre of solution), molality (moles of solute per kilogram of solvent), mole fraction, and percentage composition.
The vapour pressure of a solution is the pressure exerted by its vapour when in equilibrium with its liquid phase. It depends on the nature and quantity of the solute and solvent. Non-volatile solutes lower the vapour pressure of the solution compared to the pure solvent.
An ideal solution follows Raoult’s Law, where the total vapour pressure is directly proportional to the mole fraction of components. Ideal Solutions exhibit no enthalpy change or volume change on mixing. Examples include benzene and toluene mixtures.
Raoult’s Law states that the partial vapour pressure of a component in a solution is equal to the product of its mole fraction and its vapour pressure in the pure state. Raoult’s Law explains the colligative properties and is crucial in studying non-ideal solutions.
Azeotropes are binary mixtures that boil at a constant temperature and behave as a single substance during distillation. An azeotropic mixture is formed due to strong deviations from Raoult's Law and can be either minimum or maximum boiling azeotropes.
Adding a non-volatile solute to a solvent increases its boiling point. Elevation in boiling point is a colligative property and occurs because the solute lowers the solvent’s vapour pressure, requiring more heat to reach the boiling point.
The freezing point of a solution decreases when a solute is added. Depression in the freezing point is a colligative property which is used in applications like antifreeze solutions, where freezing is prevented by lowering the freezing point.
Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop osmosis, the movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane. It depends on the concentration of solute particles in the solution and is significant in biological processes.
Reverse osmosis occurs when a pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied to a solution, forcing solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane in the opposite direction. Reverse osmosis is widely used for water purification.
Isotonic Solutions have equal osmotic pressure to a reference solution, such as body fluids. Hypertonic Solutions have higher osmotic pressure, causing water to move out of cells. Hypotonic Solutions have lower osmotic pressure, causing water to move into cells.
The Van’t Hoff factor accounts for the effect of ionization or association of solutes on colligative properties. It is used to calculate abnormal molar masses in cases where solutes dissociate (e.g., NaCl) or associate (e.g., acetic acid).
Solubility refers to the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent at a given temperature and pressure. Henry’s Law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. This principle is critical in industries like carbonated beverages and scuba diving.
There are various kinds of binary solutions exist in nature as given in the table below:
Types of Solutions | Solvent | Solute | Examples |
Gaseous | Gas | Gas | A mixture of Oxygen and Nitrogen |
Gas | Liquid | Humidity | |
Gas | Solid | Camphor in Nitrogen gas | |
Liquid | Liquid | Gas | Carbon Dioxide in Water |
Liquid | Liquid | Milk dissolved in water | |
Liquid | Solid | Sugar dissolved in water | |
Solid | Solid | Gas | Hydrogen in Palladium |
Solid | Liquid | An amalgam of mercury with sodium | |
Solid | Solid | Brass (an alloy of copper and zinc) |
In this chapter, there are various important topics that you must understand completely:
(i) Solubility: The maximum ability of a substance to get completely dissolved in a solvent. When the solute is solid and the solvent is liquid, then only temperature affects the solubility. With the increase in temperature, the solubility increases. But pressure has no effect in this case as both solids and liquids are incompressible. But is the solute is gas, then pressure also is an important factor that plays a major role in insolubility. For this case, Henry's law is given which states that - "At constant temperature, the solubility of a gas is directly proportional to the partial pressure of a gas present above the solution".
(ii) Vapour pressure of liquid solutions: In this concept, you learn the vapour pressure of volatile liquids in solution when taken in a closed vessel. This phenomenon is explained by Raoult's law, which states that - "The vapour pressure of each volatile liquid present in the solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction of that liquid present in solution".
Mathematically, Raoult's law can be expressed as follows:
ptotal =p10+(p20+p10)x2
where, the vapour pressure of pure component 1
p20 = vapour pressure of pure component 2
x2 = mole fraction of component 2
(iii) Ideal and non-ideal solutions: Ideal solutions are those solutions which obey Raoult's law at all ranges of concentrations. Whereas the non-ideal solutions are those which do not obey Raoult's law at all ranges of concentrations. The vapour pressure of non-ideal solutions is always higher or lower than as predicted by Raoult's law and thus we say that the solution is exhibiting a positive or negative deviation, respectively.
(iv) Colligative properties: The properties of solutions which depend only on the number of solute particles present in the solution are known as colligative properties.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as follows: ΔTb=Kbm
Kb = Boiling point elevation constant
Freezing Point: It is the temperature at which the liquid and the solid form of the same substance are in equilibrium and have the same vapour pressure. A Solution freezes when its vapour pressure is equal to the V.P. of pure solid solvent. Due to the lower vapour pressure of the solution, the solid form of a solution separates out at a lower temperature.
ΔTf=Tf∘−Tf
ΔTf and M can be found out by using these relations.
ΔTf=KfwM×1000WM=Kf×w×1000ΔTf×W
Here w= Weight of solute
W= Weight of solvent
Kf= Molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant
M = Molar mass of Non-volatile solute.
Kf=RT21000 Lf or ΔHfusion
Here Lf or ΔHf= latent heat of fusion.
NOTE: The value of Kv or Kf depends only on the nature of the solvent and not on the nature of the solute.
Abnormal Mass: This concept says, that when a solute is dissolved in a liquid then the solute does not dissociate completely as expected instead it dimerizes and thus the molar mass of the solute becomes double. Such deviation of molar mass from the actual value is known as abnormal molar mass.
To deal with the case of an abnormal mass, a Vant Hoff factor was introduced in 1880, which mathematically is described as follows:
i= Normal Molar Mass Abnormal Molar Mass
For this chapter, first, you need to finish the important topics of solutions class 12 thoroughly from the class 12th NCERT book and then simultaneously solve the examples and questions given in the book. Apart from this, if you want to prepare for the advanced level of competitive exams like JEE and NEET, you must prepare from the books - O.P. Tandon and R.C Mukherjee. Meanwhile, in preparation, you must continuously write mock tests to increase your depth of knowledge. Our platform will help you to provide a variety of questions for deeper knowledge with the help of videos, articles and mock tests.
Also read,
| Heterogeneous Mixture Homogeneous Mixture |
| Mixtures |
| Solution Properties Concentration |
| Molality |
| Osmotic Pressure Equation |
| Saturated Solution |
| Oxalic Acid |
Also read,
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. This means that the substances are evenly distributed throughout and you can't see the individual components with the naked eye. A solution consists of a solute (the substance being dissolved) and a solvent (the substance doing the dissolving).
Based on physical states solute and solvent solutions are classified as:
When a solution contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved at a given temperature and pressure. Beyond this point, any additional solute will not dissolve and can remain solid then a solution is said to be saturated.
A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute as compared to the amount of solvent, while a dilute solution has a small amount of solute compared to the solvent. The concentration can be expressed in various ways, including molarity, molality, or percentage.
Several factors influence solubility, including:
The topics of solution in Chapter Class 12 are as follows:
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